Studying Crustal Processes and Deep Time with the M4 TORNADO

Accurate and robust mineralogical and geochemical characterization of samples is fundamental to understanding the processes that have been operating throughout Earth history. This context is key to robust decisions about further sub-sampling for high resolution analysis for trace element and isotopic information.

The M4 TORNADO micro-XRF spectrometers provide minimally invasive, spatial characterization of major, minor and trace elements, accessing essential information at micron scales on decimeter sized samples, guiding subsampling or micro-analysis and allowing the most to be gained from any sample.

The grains sizes and size distributions, as well as the major and trace element zoning of phenocrysts in igneous rocks provide important insights into the evolution of magma chambers prior to pluton emplacement or volcanic eruption. Such information is commonly used to decipher the cryptic processes of melt evolution operating deep in the earth that control episodes of crustal growth and recycling. In addition, the data from volcanic rocks may reveal important insights into rates of eruptionn.

Much of the data used in such studies comes through micro-drilling of powders from crystals or through in-situ analysis by Laser-Ablation techniques. These time consuming and expensive techniques benefit from having pre-characterization to guide this sub-sampling. This may be provided by micro-XRF elemental mapping, where larger sample slabs may be measured with minimal sample preparation and providing a broader overview of rock and mineral chemistry.

Learn more about the study here:

• Yousefi, F., Lentz, D.R., Bark, G. (2025). Titanomagnetite Rims on Hornblende Phenocrysts in Intermediate Subvolcanic Intrusions, Torud–Ahmad Abad Magmatic Belt, Iran: Examination of Devolatilization and Oxidation Processes. Lithosphere, 227, p13.
• Miranda‑Díaz, G., Menzies, A., Riveros‑Jensen, K., Heide, G., Bußmann, L., Härtel, B., Tagle, R., Medina, E., Griem, W. (2024). Mineralogy and geochemistry of multi‑coloured sapphires at the Portezuelo de Pajas Blancas' deposits, northern Chile: revealing crystal growth processes. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 113, 635-656.

Since they were discovered decades ago by submersible craft at mid-ocean ridges and other spreading centers, hydrothermal vents, or ‘black smokers’ have revealed fascinating insights into processes operating at these active plate margins, including the discovery of new forms of ‘extremophile’ life. The nature of these formations is also correlated with the development of certain types of base metal deposits, now with growing interest as a source of critical metals.

Micro-XRF analysis with the M4 TORNADO allows rapid characterization of samples collected from hydrothermal vents and the surrounding environment without the need for extensive sample preparation. Elemental maps reveal key details about the development of vents through time and how this development may be controlled by the interaction of hot, element-rich fluids with the surrounding sea-water. 

Learn more about the study here:

• Yang, K., , Dong, Y., Li, Z., Wang, H., Ma, W., Qiu, Z., Li, X., Han, C., Zhao, J. (2024). Geochemistry of buried polymetallic nodules from the eastern Pacific Ocean: Implication for the depth-controlled alteration process. Marine Geology, 467, 107190. 

Interpreting the complex histories recorded within metamorphic rocks, a key to understanding mountain building and other crustal processes, relies on careful characterization of the minerals, their compositions, and textural relationships between them. With a process that begins in outcrop but moves rapidly to optical petrography using polished thin sections, a scale step exists that may lead to missed information or incorrect sampling.

Micro-XRF spectrometry with the M4 TORNADO allows hand specimen sized samples to be measured providing elemental data at a scale observed in the outcrop with a hand lens. In addition to providing a broader geochemical context for a rock’s evolution, the method allows appropriate targeting for further analysis. With the small spot size (<20 µm) and ability to fluoresce trace elements such as Y, Zr, and the REEs, the targeting of dateable accessory minerals – their presence and textural context - becomes easy, even in larger rock slabs.

Learn more about the study here:

• Jacob, D.E., Fung, A. (2024). Geochemistry of forty-one eclogitic and pyroxenitic mantle xenoliths from the Central Slave Craton, Canada (Ekati Diamond Mine). Geoscience Data Journal, 11, 825-832. 

Targeting of dateable accessory minerals in stream sediments or from crushed rocks typically involves a long process of mineral separation using gravimetric and magnetic techniques, commonly culminating in hand picking using an optical stereoscope. The presence of the mineral to be targeted is not always guaranteed in some rocks and may be difficult to identify by optical properties to all but the most experienced practitioners.

The M4 TORNADO micro-XRF spectrometer allows rapid screening of particulate samples to identify the presence of even a trace abundance of particular minerals. Elemental mapping may be conducted on non-flat samples, including scatter-mounts of particulates without the need for mounting in epoxy, polishing, or carbon coating, making quick screening simple and easy to achieve. The added benefit of micro-XRF, as an ED-XRF technique, is that an entire energy spectrum is collected simultaneously at each point, allowing comprehensive characterization of a sample and detection of minerals not expected within a sample.

Applications include:

Screening of materials after crushing to determine the relative presence of target minerals prior to heavy mineral separation

Conduct provenance analysis of stream sediments supported by full the mineral characterization power of AMICS for M4 TORNADO, without the need for extensive sample preparation.

Learn more about the study here:

• Watthanapond, P., Chualaowanich, T., Fanka, A. (2024). Mineral chemistry and petrography of granitic rocks related rare earth elements in Uthai Thani area, central Thailand: Implication for REE potential in Thailand. Bulletin of Earth Sciences of Thailand, 16, 69-79.

Whether you're exploring new instrumentation, planning your next grant proposal, or simply curious about how micro-XRF could fit into your workflow - we're here to help.

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